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It introduced two new modes of operation, bit mode and compatibility mode, along with a new 4-level paging mode. With bit mode and the new paging mode, it supports vastly larger amounts of virtual memory and physical memory than was possible on its bit predecessors, allowing programs to store larger amounts of data in memory. Each register can store one or two double-precision numbers or one to four single-precision numbers, or various integer formats. In bit mode, instructions are modified to support bit operands and bit addressing mode.

The compatibility mode defined in the architecture allows and bit user applications to run unmodified, coexisting with bit applications if the bit operating system supports them.

Also, a processor supporting x still powers on in real mode for full backward compatibility with the , as x86 processors supporting protected mode have done since the This was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to follow suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was software-compatible with AMD’s specification. The x architecture is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture formerly IA The architectures are not compatible on the native instruction set level, and operating systems and applications compiled for one cannot be run on the other.

Originally announced in [14] with a full specification available in August , [15] the AMD64 architecture was positioned by AMD from the beginning as an evolutionary way to add bit computing capabilities to the existing x86 architecture while supporting legacy bit x86 code , as opposed to Intel’s approach of creating an entirely new bit architecture with IA The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of bit general-purpose processor registers for example, rax , bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, and bit virtual addresses.

Although virtual addresses are 64 bits wide in bit mode, current implementations and all chips that are known to be in the planning stages do not allow the entire virtual address space of 2 64 bytes 16 EiB to be used.

This would be approximately four billion times the size of the virtual address space on bit machines. Most operating systems and applications will not need such a large address space for the foreseeable future, so implementing such wide virtual addresses would simply increase the complexity and cost of address translation with no real benefit. AMD, therefore, decided that, in the first implementations of the architecture, only the least significant 48 bits of a virtual address would actually be used in address translation page table lookup.

In addition, the AMD specification requires that the most significant 16 bits of any virtual address, bits 48 through 63, must be copies of bit 47 in a manner akin to sign extension. If this requirement is not met, the processor will raise an exception. This is still 65, times larger than the virtual 4 GiB address space of bit machines. This feature eases later scalability to true bit addressing. Many operating systems including, but not limited to, the Windows NT family take the higher-addressed half of the address space named kernel space for themselves and leave the lower-addressed half user space for application code, user mode stacks, heaps, and other data regions.

Also, enforcing the “canonical form” of addresses by checking the unused address bits prevents their use by the operating system in tagged pointers as flags, privilege markers, etc.

The first versions of Windows for x64 did not even use the full TiB; they were restricted to just 8 TiB of user space and 8 TiB of kernel space. Intel has implemented a scheme with a 5-level page table , which allows Intel 64 processors to support a bit virtual address space. The operating system can also limit the virtual address space. Details, where applicable, are given in the ” Operating system compatibility and characteristics ” section. Details on this point are given in the ” Operating system compatibility and characteristics ” section of this article.

Long mode is the architecture’s intended primary mode of operation; it is a combination of the processor’s native bit mode and a combined bit and bit compatibility mode. It is used by bit operating systems. Under a bit operating system, bit programs run under bit mode, and bit and bit protected mode applications that do not need to use either real mode or virtual mode in order to execute at any time run under compatibility mode.

Real-mode programs and programs that use virtual mode at any time cannot be run in long mode unless those modes are emulated in software. Since the basic instruction set is the same, there is almost no performance penalty for executing protected mode x86 code.

This is unlike Intel’s IA , where differences in the underlying instruction set mean that running bit code must be done either in emulation of x86 making the process slower or with a dedicated x86 coprocessor. However, on the x platform, many x86 applications could benefit from a bit recompile , due to the additional registers in bit code and guaranteed SSE2-based FPU support, which a compiler can use for optimization.

However, applications that regularly handle integers wider than 32 bits, such as cryptographic algorithms, will need a rewrite of the code handling the huge integers in order to take advantage of the bit registers. Legacy mode is the mode that the processor is in when it is not in long mode. Legacy mode allows for a maximum of 32 bit virtual addressing which limits the virtual address space to 4 GiB. Protected mode is made into a submode of legacy mode.

Real mode is the initial mode of operation when the processor is initialized, and is a submode of legacy mode. It is backwards compatible with the original Intel and Intel processors. Real mode is primarily used today by operating system bootloaders, which are required by the architecture to configure virtual memory details before transitioning to higher modes.

This mode is also used by any operating system that needs to communicate with the system firmware with a traditional BIOS -style interface. Intel 64 is Intel’s implementation of x, used and implemented in various processors made by Intel. Historically, AMD has developed and produced processors with instruction sets patterned after Intel’s original designs, but with x, roles were reversed: Intel found itself in the position of adopting the ISA that AMD created as an extension to Intel’s own x86 processor line.

After several years of denying its existence, Intel announced at the February IDF that the project was indeed underway. Intel’s chairman at the time, Craig Barrett , admitted that this was one of their worst-kept secrets. Intel’s name for this instruction set has changed several times.

The first processor to implement Intel 64 was the multi-socket processor Xeon code-named Nocona in June In contrast, the initial Prescott chips February did not enable this feature. Intel’s official launch of Intel 64 under the name EM64T at that time in mainstream desktop processors was the N0 stepping Prescott-2M.

The first Intel mobile processor implementing Intel 64 is the Merom version of the Core 2 processor, which was released on July 27, VIA Technologies introduced their first implementation of the x architecture in after five years of development by its CPU division, Centaur Technology.

The processor supports a number of VIA-specific x86 extensions designed to boost efficiency in low-power appliances. It is expected that the Isaiah architecture will be twice as fast in integer performance and four times as fast in floating-point performance as the previous-generation VIA Esther at an equivalent clock speed. The features exposed by each level are as follows: [41]. All levels include features found in the previous levels. Although nearly identical, there are some differences between the two instruction sets in the semantics of a few seldom used machine instructions or situations , which are mainly used for system programming.

This is therefore of interest mainly to developers of compilers, operating systems and similar, which must deal with individual and special system instructions. Intel’s Xeon Phi “Knights Corner” coprocessors, which implement a subset of x with some vector extensions, [69] are also used, along with x processors, in the Tianhe-2 supercomputer.

The following operating systems and releases support the x architecture in long mode. Preliminary infrastructure work was started in February for a x port. FreeBSD first added x support under the name “amd64” as an experimental architecture in 5. It was included as a standard distribution architecture as of 5.

The 6. Work is currently being done to integrate more fully the x86 application binary interface ABI , in the same manner as the Linux bit ABI compatibility currently works. As of NetBSD 2. The NX bit is used to provide non-executable stack and heap with per-page granularity segment granularity being used on bit x Complete in-tree implementation of AMD64 support was achieved prior to the hardware’s initial release because AMD had loaned several machines for the project’s hackathon that year.

DOS itself is not aware of that, and no benefits should be expected unless running DOS in an emulation with an adequate virtualization driver backend, for example: the mass storage interface. Linux was the first operating system kernel to run the x architecture in long mode , starting with the 2.

This permits programs to be recompiled into long mode while retaining the use of bit programs. Several Linux distributions currently ship with xnative kernels and userlands. Some, such as Arch Linux , [79] SUSE , Mandriva , and Debian allow users to install a set of bit components and libraries when installing off a bit DVD, thus allowing most existing bit applications to run alongside the bit OS.

Other distributions, such as Fedora , Slackware and Ubuntu , are available in one version compiled for a bit architecture and another compiled for a bit architecture. Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux allow concurrent installation of all userland components in both 32 and bit versions on a bit system. Mac OS X No other libraries or frameworks work with bit applications in Mac OS X The kernel, and all kernel extensions, are bit only.

However, not all bit computers can run the bit kernel, and not all bit computers that can run the bit kernel will do so by default. OS X This removal of support has presented a problem for WineHQ and the commercial version CrossOver , as it needs to still be able to run bit Windows applications. The solution, termed wine32on64 , was to add thunks that bring the CPU in and out of bit compatibility mode in the nominally bit application. In Mac OS X Solaris 10 and later releases support the x architecture.

The default behavior is to boot a bit kernel, allowing both bit and existing or new bit executables to be run. A bit kernel can also be manually selected, in which case only bit executables will run. The isainfo command can be used to determine if a system is running a bit kernel.

For Solaris 11, only the bit kernel is provided. However, the bit kernel supports both and bit executables, libraries, and system calls. Windows Vista , which also has many different editions, was released in January Windows 7 was released in July Windows Server R2 was sold in only x64 and Itanium editions; later versions of Windows Server only offer an x64 edition.

Under Windows 8. Since AMD64 and Intel 64 are substantially similar, many software and hardware products use one vendor-neutral term to indicate their compatibility with both implementations. The term IA refers to the Itanium processor, and should not be confused with x, as it is a completely different instruction set. Many operating systems and products, especially those that introduced x support prior to Intel’s entry into the market, use the term “AMD64” or “amd64” to refer to both AMD64 and Intel Intel entered into a cross-licensing agreement with AMD, licensing to AMD their patents on existing x86 techniques, and licensing from AMD their patents on techniques used in x From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Type of instruction set which is a bit version of the x86 instruction set.

 
 

 

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Dirt track” and “garage” tasks have been removed from training, and driving games have been untouched.

Previously there was a damage bar for the chased car, which has been changed to proximity. Basically, the user will need to catch up with other racers and keep his distance so he won’t be suspected. The walkthrough begins when two men burst in with guns and kill everyone but Lenny.

He manages to escape through the back exit, after which the player takes control over the hero. Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars.

These controls include a steering wheel , pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car’s speed and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal , a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars’ controls are now standardized, such as the location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, the electric car and the integration of mobile communications.

Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing , and a crank instead of an electric starter. However new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning , navigation systems , and in car entertainment.

Another trend is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW ‘s iDrive and Ford ‘s MyFord Touch. Another change is that while early cars’ pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls.

Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, an entertainment system which originated from car radios , sideways windows which can be lowered or raised electrically manually on earlier cars , and one or multiple auxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such as mobile phones , portable fridges, power inverters , and electrical air pumps from the on-board electrical system.

Dedicated automotive fuses and circuit breakers prevent damage from electrical overload. Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights.

These include headlights , which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-colored reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing ; and on some vehicles, additional lights e.

Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a trunk light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. During the late 20th and early 21st century cars increased in weight due to batteries, [56] modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and “more-powerful—if more efficient—engines” [57] and, as of [update] , typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes.

The SmartFortwo , a small city car , weighs — kg 1,—1, lb. Some places tax heavier cars more: as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminum instead of steel. Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear.

Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats.

On the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. The costs of car usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees , taxes, and insurance, [11] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits — perceived and real — of vehicle usage.

The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience, [13] and emergency power.

Similarly the costs to society of car use may include; maintaining roads , land use , air pollution , road congestion , public health , health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life; and can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. Societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities.

The ability of humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies. Cars are a major cause of urban air pollution , [69] with all types of cars producing dust from brakes, tyres and road wear. Many governments are using fiscal policies, such as road tax , to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars; [77] and many cities are doing the same with low-emission zones.

High fuel taxes or cultural change may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive.

The lifetime of a car built in the s is expected to be about 16 years, or about 2 million kilometres 1. The manufacture of vehicles is resource intensive, and many manufacturers now report on the environmental performance of their factories, including energy usage, waste and water consumption. Animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and pollution. Over the lifetime of the average car the “loss of habitat potential” may be over 50, m 2 , sq ft based on primary production correlations.

More recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges designed to allow wildlife crossings and creating wildlife corridors. Growth in the popularity of vehicles and commuting has led to traffic congestion. New materials which may replace steel car bodies include aluminum, [95] fiberglass , carbon fiber , biocomposites , and carbon nanotubes. Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.

Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as driverless cars, already exist in prototype such as the Google driverless car , but have a long way to go before they are in general use.

There have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design , an approach to designing in which the plans for the machinery and systems are publicly shared, often without monetary compensation. None of the projects have succeeded in developing a car as a whole including both hardware and software, and no mass production ready open-source based designs have been introduced.

Some car hacking through on-board diagnostics OBD has been done so far. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular, in the US and Europe. Services like car sharing offer residents to “share” a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods. The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world’s motor vehicles , more than three-quarters of which are cars. In there were 56 million cars manufactured worldwide, [] down from 67 million the previous year.

The automotive industry in China produces by far the most 20 million in , followed by Japan 7 million , then Germany, South Korea and India. Around the world there are about a billion cars on the road; [] they burn over a trillion liters of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly, consuming about 50 EJ nearly terawatt-hours of energy. Many of these negative effects fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. The car industry is also facing increasing competition from the public transport sector, as some people re-evaluate their private vehicle usage.

Established alternatives for some aspects of car use include public transport such as buses, trolleybuses , trains, subways , tramways , light rail , cycling, and walking. Bicycle sharing systems have been established in China and many European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam.

Similar programs have been developed in large US cities. The term motorcar was formerly also used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as a small locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Motorized passenger road vehicle. This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. The specific problem is: messy layout. Please help improve this article if you can.

July Learn how and when to remove this template message. For the Pixar film, see Cars film. For the country, see Central African Republic. Cars and trucks driving on a divided highway , Highway in Ontario , Canada. Main article: History of the automobile. See also: Automotive industry. See also: Alternative fuel vehicle. See also: Car controls. Main article: Automotive lighting.

See also: Car body style , Car classification , Truck classification , and Vehicle size class. Main articles: Car safety , Traffic collision , Low speed vehicle , and Epidemiology of motor vehicle collisions. Main articles: Economics of car usage , Car costs , and Effects of the car on societies.

See also: Exhaust gas , Waste tires , Environmental effects of transport , Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy , Noise pollution , Environmental aspects of the electric car , Vehicle recycling , and Externalities of automobiles. Main article: Autonomous car. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. November Main article: Open source car. Main article: Automotive industry.

March Main article: Alternatives to car use. Cars portal. Main article: Outline of automobiles. Pocket Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN September Retrieved 29 September The Automobile Book.

This makes Bus Driver unlike any other driving game the experience of driving a bus is very different from blazing through a racing circuit. Large city to drive in, with several districts of varying styles modern, old-town, suburb, airport, harbour, and more. Following are the main features of Bus Driver Gold that you will be able to experience after the first install on your Operating System.

It is full and complete game. Just download and start playing it. We have provided direct link full setup of the game. Bus Driver is supposed to be all about realism. However, there’s no game as such, although there are five different levels of ability, and you get bonuses for obeying rules of the road and sticking to your timetable etc.

There are five buses to drive in a huge city environment with various districts, 30 routes, and varying weather conditions set at differing times of day. There are different bus types that go along with Bus Driver such as school bus, tourist bus, sight-seeing tour bus and even a prisoner transportation bus. The entire driving environment in Bus Driver is made even more realistic courtesy of an AI system which ‘learns’ from your driving habits.

The vector graphics are a bit blocky and basic and the gameplay can get quite dull at times but for anyone who is a fan buses or just driving sims in general, Bus Driver is a lot of fun.

In Bus Driver, your job is to transport passengers around an attractive and realistic city.

 
 

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It is the read-write memory directly addressable by the processor for use by the operating system and application programs. As memory prices rapidly declined, this design decision became a limitation in the use of large memory capacities until the introduction of operating systems and processors that made it irrelevant. In the design of the PC, the memory below KB was for random-access memory on the motherboard or on expansion boards, and it was called the conventional memory area. The first memory segment 64 KB of the conventional memory area is named lower memory or low memory area.

The remaining KB beyond the conventional memory area, called the upper memory area UMA , was reserved for system use and optional devices. The need for more RAM grew faster than the needs of hardware to utilize the reserved addresses, which resulted in RAM eventually being mapped into these unused upper areas to utilize all available addressable space.

This introduced a reserved “hole” or several holes into the set of addresses occupied by hardware that could be used for arbitrary data. Avoiding such a hole was difficult and ugly and not supported by DOS or most programs that could run on it. Later, space between the holes would be used as upper memory blocks UMBs. The 1 MB barrier also remained as long as the was running in real mode , since DOS required real mode which uses the segment and offset registers in an overlapped manner such that addresses with more than 20 bits are not possible.

Instead they operate within a virtual address space, which is defined independently of available RAM addresses. Some motherboards feature a “Memory Hole at 15 Megabytes” option required for certain VGA video cards that require exclusive access to one particular megabyte for video memory. Sometimes software or a custom address decoder was required for this to work. Programs such as Lotus , which accessed video memory directly, needed to be patched to handle this memory layout.

Therefore, the KB barrier was removed at the cost of hardware compatibility. COM or by using CTTY later on to direct output to and receive input from a dumb terminal or another computer running a terminal emulator. These drivers and utilities typically permanently used some conventional memory, reducing the total available for standard DOS programs.

As can be seen above, many of these drivers and TSRs could be considered practically essential to the full-featured operation of the system. But in many cases a choice had to be made by the computer user, to decide whether to be able to run certain standard DOS programs or have all their favorite drivers and TSRs loaded. Loading the entire list shown above is likely either impractical or impossible, if the user also wants to run a standard DOS program as well.

In some cases drivers or TSRs would have to be unloaded from memory to run certain programs, and then reloaded after running the program. For drivers that could not be unloaded, later versions of DOS included a startup menu capability to allow the computer user to select various groups of drivers and TSRs to load before running certain high-memory-usage standard DOS programs.

As DOS applications grew larger and more complex in the late s and early s, it became common practice to free up conventional memory by moving the device drivers and TSR programs into upper memory blocks UMBs in the upper memory area UMA at boot, in order to maximize the conventional memory available for applications.

This had the advantage of not requiring hardware changes, and preserved application compatibility. If the operation failed, the driver or TSR would automatically load into the regular conventional memory instead. The ability of DOS versions 5. Hardware expansion boards could use any of the upper memory area for ROM addressing, so the upper memory blocks were of variable size and in different locations for each computer, depending on the hardware installed.

Some windows of upper memory could be large and others small. Loading drivers and TSRs high would pick a block and try to fit the program into it, until a block was found where it fit, or it would go into conventional memory. This could be used to advantage if the programs were repeatedly loaded in different orders, and checking to see how much memory was free after each permutation. This automatic optimization often still did not provide the same result as doing it by hand, in the sense of providing the greatest free conventional memory.

Also in some cases third-party companies wrote special multi-function drivers that would combine the capabilities of several standard DOS drivers and TSRs into a single very compact program that used just a few kilobytes of memory. The barrier was only overcome with the arrival of DOS extenders , which allowed DOS applications to run in bit or bit protected mode , but these were not very widely used outside of computer gaming.

It was very common in games for DOS. Prior to DOS extenders, if a user installed additional memory and wished to use it under DOS, they would first have to install and configure drivers to support either expanded memory specification EMS or extended memory specification XMS and run programs supporting one of these specifications. EMS was a specification available on all PCs, including those based on the Intel and Intel , which allowed add-on hardware to page small chunks of memory in and out bank switching of the “real mode” addressing space 0x—0xFFFF.

A program would then have to explicitly request the page to be accessed before using it. These memory locations could then be used arbitrarily until replaced by another page. This is very similar to modern paged virtual memory. However, in a virtual memory system, the operating system handles all paging operations, while paging was explicit with EMS.

A typical XMS driver had to switch to protected mode in order to load this memory. The problem with this approach is that while in protected mode, direct DOS calls could not be made. The workaround was to implement a callback mechanism, requiring a reset of the On the , this was a major problem. The Intel , which introduced ” virtual mode “, allowed the guest kernel to emulate the and run the host operating system without having to actually force the processor back into “real mode”.

SYS 2. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. ISBN , p. Patent 4,, – Software emulation of bank-switched memory using a virtual DOS monitor and paged memory management , Fig.

February Intel Corporation. Archived from the original PDF on Retrieved Windows Internals. Part 2 6th ed. Microsoft Press. Note the gap in the memory address range from page 9F to page Programming Applications for Microsoft Windows. Archived from the original on Release in German 3 ed. ZIP collection maintained up to and distributed on many sites at the time. TXT file. PC Magazine. ISSN Personal Computer World. September Burgwitz, Andreas ed. Accelerator Boards.

DosMan Drivel. For S computers , a low-cost alternative to using a regular computer terminal was to use a video card. The video card, however, used up some of the memory address space. The boot ROM would normally use up address space as well. SCP systems were designed to be used with a terminal, and the boot ROM could be disabled after boot-up.

Microsoft took full advantage of the SCP system capability. In , years after SCP had shut down, they were still using the SCP system for one task only it could perform “linking the linker”. That machine could not be retired until bit software tools were developed for Intel ‘s microprocessor. Categories : X86 memory management DOS memory management. Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history.

Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Extended video memory EGA.